![]() ![]() ![]() In the current study, we present new scales of both healthy selfishness and pathological altruism and distinguish them from related constructs in the field. We believe this is due, in large part, to the lack of reliable and valid scales to capture these constructs. While there has been some theory and indirect evidence (e.g., vignettes and historical examples) of these paradoxical forms of selfishness, there is a dearth of empirical evidence systematically investigating individual differences in healthy selfishness and pathological altruism. On the flip side, Maslow (1943/1996) noted that “healthy selfishness”- a healthy respect for one’s own health, growth, happiness, joy, and freedom- can have a positive impact both on the self and on others. They use the example of Oliver Wendell Holmes, a well-respected American Supreme Court justice, whose well-intentioned rhetoric supported eugenic forced sterilization. (2012) refer to this as “pathological altruism” and note that “some of human history’s most horrific episodes have risen from people’s well-meaning altruistic tendencies” (p. There are many examples across human history of the unintended negative consequences of altruism on the self and others, despite the best intentions. Reality points to a much more complex story. We tend to think of altruism as unselfish and beneficial, with minimal tradeoffs, and selfishness as generally bad and glutinous, negatively impacting on others. Altruism can be the back door to hell.” – Oakley et al. ![]() “ What we value so much, the altruistic ‘good’ side of human nature, can also have a dark side. “ Any pleasure that does no harm to other people is to be valued.”– Russell (1930) We discuss the implications for future research, including clinical implications. These results underpin the paradoxical nature of both constructs. PA was associated with maladaptive psychological outcomes, vulnerable narcissism, and selfish motivations for helping others. HS was related to higher levels of psychological well-being and adaptive psychological functioning as well as a genuine prosocial orientation. The scales showed good internal consistency and a clear two-dimensional structure across both studies. In two studies ( N 1 = 370, N 2 = 891), we constructed and validated the HS and PA scales. Based on these writings, we introduce new scales for the assessment of individual differences in two paradoxical forms of selfishness that have lacked measurement in the field – healthy selfishness (HS) and pathological altruism (PA). However, human history as well as the works of humanistic and psychodynamic psychologists point to a more complex picture: not all selfishness is necessarily bad, and not all altruism is necessarily good. Selfishness is often regarded as an undesirable or even immoral characteristic, whereas altruism is typically considered universally desirable and virtuous. 3Department of Psychology, University of Graz, Graz, Austria.2Clinical Psychology and Behavioral Neuroscience, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany.1Department of Psychology, Columbia University, New York, NY, United States. ![]()
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